overhead
a. Define the Problem
b. Review Literature and Theories
c. Formulate Hypothesis
d. Select Research Design
e. Sampling
f. Collect Data
g. Analyze Data and Interpret Results
h. Report Research Findings
i. Initiation of further Research ==>
Deduction: conclude from the general (abstract) to the concrete (specific)
Induction: conclude from the concrete to the general
Theory: abstract
Hypothesis: more concrete
Observation: concrete empirical world
Theory testing:
Problems concerning causation and theories
A) Variables and their relationships
Independent variable: x storks
Dependent variable: y children
Spurious association: x =>y
Causation: z=>x, z=>y
Another potential problem: Intervening variable
x => z => y
example: occupational achievement of fathers (x) correlates with the occupational level of sons (y) through the intervening variable of education (z)
Causal chain: x => z and z => y
Theories have to be
Empirical: explain!
Fallible: explain!
Causal: explain!
General: explain!
What about our stork theory?
Sampling:
Stir up the soup (prepare your sample)
Take a spoon full of soup (take a sample)
Taste how salty it is (analyze your sample)
From your sample you can estimate how much salt you have to add for the whole soup (conclude and infer)
Sociological Methods
1. Laboratory Experiments
2. Fieldwork or Participant Observation
3. Surveys
4. Documentary Research
1. Laboratory Experiments:
We systematically vary the independent variable (x) and
observe the changes in the dependent variable (y)
Book Example: Zimbardo's (1972) Stanford Prison Experiment
Another famous example: Milgram experiment
Cover story for the subject:
Learning experiment, where the subject is the teacher who has to apply electric
shocks to a student.
Reality: A person exercises authority over the subject to punish the student
who, in reality, is an actor.
Independent variable: social distance of authority figure
Dependent variable: shock intensity given by the subject
Pros and Cons of Experiments
Pros:
Cons:
2. A. Field Experiment
Very similar to a laboratory experiment. Independent variables and dependent variables are controlled. However, the experminet takes place in a more natural environment.
2. B. Fieldwork or Participant observation
Stresses the understanding of a phenomenon
Explorative, rather than cause-effect related as the typical laboratory
experiment.
Textbook example: Humphreys Tearoom Trade
· Participant Observation of public restrooms
· Men were searching for instant anonymous sex.
Giddens’ application of theoretical approaches for the tearoom phenomenon.
Rational Choice
Question: how is the behavior in a tearoom a rational response following opportunities and overcoming restrains?
Interactionsim
What is actually going on in a tearoom?
How did this behavior get established though interaction?
Functionalist
How does a tearoom contribute to the continuation of society?
Marxist
Are economic class relations apparent in the tearoom?
Feminist
How is women’s life affected by this behavior?
3. Surveys
Overhead
Sampling:
Stir up the soup (prepare your sample)
Take a spoon full of soup (take a sample)
Taste how salty it is (analyze your sample)
From your sample you can estimate how much salt you have to add for the whole soup (conclude and infer)
Statistical Concepts:
Mean
Median
Difference between Mean and Median
|
Population 1 |
Population 2 |
|
40,000 35,000 30,000 25,000 20,000 |
90,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 |
|
150,000 / 5 = 30,000 |
150,000 / 5 = 30,000 |
Annual personal income in 2003 was 30,033
(U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2004-2005)
Disclaimer: The documents linked to other sources on the WWW, others than http://www2.tltc.ttu.edu/Schneider2/ and its subdirectories, do not necessarily express the views of Texas Tech University or Dr. Andreas Schneider. @Copyright 2005 Andreas Schneider